Aileen Becker | University of Erfurt
In the first quarter of the third century, a well-educated Christian, Hippolytus of Rome (170-235 CE) wrote a highly unorthodox, even heretical, work - The Refutatio. He attempted to prove wrong all existing heresies, among them a complex compilation of several famous Greek philosophers who wrote extensively about water and its cosmic and religious significance. For him, heretical ideas, natural philosophers, ethicists and dialecticians are all the same. They are to be debunked and abandoned. He deals with diverse aetiologies, which at the same time provide historical and sociological paradigms for the reciprocal influence of urbanity and religion in the capital of the empire, which has many faiths. Hippolytus was a careerist. He had previously been appointed presbyter by his local bishop, which means that he probably roamed around the city and gave speeches about the Christian lifestyle and teachings.
Rediscovered in 1842 by Minoides Mynas in a monastery on Mount Athos, the Refutatio is a collection of originally nine books, six of which are extant, against so-called heresies, in which Hippolytus decidedly argues against disregarding ‘any of the teachings that are in force among the Greeks’ and thus takes more account of his comprehensive education than of his new faith, which he embeds in the sum of the others and tries to distinguish from them. Hippolytus wanted to give an overview of all philosophers and views to reduce them to absurdity. Beyond that, however, he provides a multi-layered collection of ideas about the conception of the world and of man according to his nature and beginnings. The knowledge of the ancients was still alive and tangible, and Hippolytus acquired it. He shows that non-Christian beliefs and heretical practices were not discarded or forgotten upon conversion to Christianity but were still a vital part of identity for a Roman. Despite his claims, the text illustrates that there was no such thing as one Christian truth, at least to him.
In one example of many, he refers to the Greek philosopher, Thales, who researched natural phenomena in the sixth century BCE:
‘Thales of Miletus, one of the seven sages, is said to have first concerned himself with natural science. He claimed that the origin and end of the universe was water because the universe consisted of water, be it in a solid or liquid state, and it floated on water.’
Refutatio against all Heresies, Book I, 1
In an encyclopaedic approach, Hippolytus recorded the knowledge of his time, conveying in a schoolmasterly manner how water came into the world that inhabits, directs, and provides it. Romans at this time were conceptually guided by their beliefs in gods and goddesses, with philosophers providing important variations. In the Refutatio, Hippolytus begins his list of natural philosophers with Thales. Hippolytus ridicules Thales by recounting how he fell into a well while gazing at the sky; mocking him for overlooking what was right in front of him. With such demeaning entries, Hippolytus wanted to both entertain and provoke the pagans and their many gods. His writing is irreverent, and his stylus is sharp as a knife. Now, what does water have to do with it?
Water was on everyone's lips. However, water was not always the same for everyone. For example, urbanite Christians like Hippolytus thought differently about the inherent qualities of water than believers in the established Roman pagan religion. Nevertheless, with the spread of Christianity, we saw few changes at first. In 202 CE, Emperor Septimius Severus kept conversion to Christianity a punishable offence and persecuted it locally in Rome. These measures were relaxed under later Emperors. The reign of Severus Alexander and his mother, Julia Mamaea, is considered an especially tolerant climate for the burgeoning faith. In this era, Rome became a breeding ground for new Christian philosophers, such as Hippolytus, who circulated diverse critical views towards the world of many gods.
Water was integral to pagan rituals and leisure activities, while also being essential for urban living. This dual significance can be seen in the secular structures of fountains, aqueducts, and canals, as well as in the sacred meanings attributed to water relating to various Roman deities. The supply and discharge of water required sophisticated technology, exemplified by aqueducts, which showcased human mastery over the sacred element.
The water supply had to be guaranteed at all times and in all places. It was an object of pride, display and especially competition with other cities. A prime example of this emphasis on water was the Great Nymphaea, which symbolised the increasing significance of water in Roman culture. Consequently, early Christians, with their beliefs about pure and impure water, felt the need to address these issues. Hippolytus, based in Rome was one of many active contributors to this dialogue.
One particularly vivid example of this interplay between profane and sacred was the Septizodium, a monumental fountain from 203 BCE. Hippolytus could not have missed this extraordinarily luxuriant monument of pagan lifestyle. Even a century later, the Roman historian Ammianus Marcellinus noted that the Septizodium was a popular spot where people gathered to admire its extravagant style. However, instead of allowing access to water, fountains like the Septizodium, acted as water ambassadors of the Empire, radiating abundance and fortune, despite being no more than a decorative façade. The impressive decoration of the Septizodium featured a large statue of the Emperor Septimius Severus in its centre, presiding over the planetary deities and representing the cosmic harmony he brought to the empire. The theme of astrological deities was intended to show that his reign was divinely ordained. He reigns over heaven and earth, and abundant water gushes beneath him. Early Christian thinks, such as Hippolytus, had to deal with this omnipresence and cosmic interpretation and argue against them. Hippolytus did this by highlighting the contradictions within various pagan beliefs, showcasing the fallacies of their stories.
At one point in Refutatio, Hippolytus likens himself to Heracles (Hercules). Just like Heracles had to clean out the stables of King Augeas filled with dirt and false ideas, Hippolytus felt he was tackling the problem of false teachings in his own time. Heracles was one of the most popular figures in the performing arts and near omnipresent in visual culture. His statue was part of a typical sculptural thermal spa decoration of the second century. The great imperial baths outdid each other time and time again by size and decoration. They were the strongholds of the pagan lifestyle and were richly decorated with statues of gods. As use of the public baths was so ingrained in Roman society, even early Christians were exposed to this pantheon every time they visited.
Hippolytus openly criticises certain beliefs and practices of his time, using strong and vivid imagery, like that of a filthy cesspool, drawing upon entries in the Book of Baruch, a more critical part of the Old Testament, to express his disdain for non-Christian water rituals and pushing his own Christian stance.
‘For there has been a separation made between water and water; and there is water, that is below the firmament of the wicked creation, in which earthly and animal men are washed; and there is life-giving water, (that) above the firmament, of the Good One, in which spiritual (and) living men are washed; and in this Elohim washed Himself.’
Refutatio against all Heresies, Book V, 27
Hippolytus comments on his compilation of ‘Baruch’ as the worst of all heresies and beginning a negative conversation about Jewish beliefs. During the second century, Christians practiced baptism using water from natural sources, and it was not until the third century that baptisteries started being used for baptism and baths of rebirth. According to the orthodox Christian views of the time, a baptismal bath was the only bath that cleansed spiritually; public baths were seen as incapable of doing so, despite several reports of public baths being used to perform baptisms. Hippolytus is particularly troubled by certain ideas surrounding baptism. He thought that offering a second baptism is misleading and ultimately damaging. However, his open criticism of such fundamental beliefs was not met with approval.
Such views, amongst a host of others resulted in Hippolytus coming into conflict with Pope Zephyrinus (217-218) and the majority of the Church of Rome. As the pope refused to pronounce a clear-cut position on these matters, Hippolytus sharply criticised him, calling him unfit to lead the Church of Rome. This criticism, along with another incident where he ridiculed Zephyrinus's successor, marked the beginning of the decline of Hippolytus's career in the Church of Rome, despite his prominence and his ambitious and impressive writings.
If we focus on the example of water to understand the spiritual richness of both Roman culture and early Christianity; we can see that bathing facilities could be used for a new religious ritual, even if they are technically non-ritualised spaces that need to be changed. This urban space needs to be conquered and remodelled. Religious change in early Christianity in the imperial period poses a great challenge for people who want to reshape and understand their environment and create spaces for their group to do so, which also involves narrative spaces and interpretative sovereignties such as those described by Hippolytus. He fights for elementary interpretative sovereignty. The visible religious trench warfare fought with the stylus, or the sword, is significant for the vibrant period around 200.
Further Reading
M. Bradley, 'It all comes out in the wash'. Looking harder at the Roman fullonica (Journal of Roman Archaeology, Volume 15, 2002, pp. 20 - 44)
J.E. Lendon, That Tyrant Persuasion. How Rhetoric Shaped the Roman World (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2022)
S. Maréchal, Public baths and bathing habits in late antiquity. A study of the evidence from Italy, North Africa and Palestine A.D. 285-700. Late antique archaeology (Supplementary Series Volume 6. Leiden; Boston: Brill, 2020)
Aileen Becker is a doctoral fellow at the research group “Religion and Urbanity” of the Max Weber Research Center in Erfurt [https://www.uni-erfurt.de/en/max-weber-kolleg/forschung/forschungsgruppen-und-stellen/research-groups/humanities-centre-for-advanced-studies-kolleg-forschungsgruppe-kfg-religion-and-urbanity-reciprocal-formations-for-2779]. She works on Roman bathing culture and how Christians appropriated this urban waterspace to constitute themselves as a group in the urban.